Case study - Waco Electronics Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

- Waco Electronics - Case Study Example Waco Electronics has both current and prospective customers. The business updated the company’s website in December 2012 and included all services and products for both current and prospective to view. Customers can place orders or request for repairs on the company’s website. According to Khan and Quadri (2014), customers are the main reason for the existence of the business without which it cannot exist. Wako has 1,105 customers; the company has maintained a service database used to determine when a customer needs a particular service. Vendors are firms and individuals that provide goods and services to Wako Enterprises for resale. Vendors could be manufacturers of inventoriable items which they sell to Wako Enterprises for resale. The client company makes purchase contracts with the vendors in order to supply the required goods and services (Deng & Chi, 2012). Waco service agents (WSA) agents are responsible for reviewing all reviewing all web placed requests and then calling the customer for further clarifications. The agents are also responsible for organising for transport of goods to the customers’ premises (Fjermestad & Romano, 2006). The WSA collaborates with Outback Tracking to execute the company’s customer delivery endeavours. Currently, Waco Enterprises has six sales agents, who handle all sales items and distribution of security equipment, retailing of surveillance and shrink management solutions. The decision arising from this question may involve the company launching extensive advertising campaigns and streamlining repair service processes in order to attract additional customers and maintain current customers. The company may also opt to prioritize more profitable items because they generate more money. The potential outcome of the decision arising from this question is beginning to order goods and services after customers demand for them. Suppliers are contacted at the exact time goods

Consultation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Consultation - Essay Example providing nursing services for a while and hence is qualified to provide advice and information about rehabilitation to organizations dealing with different forms of rehabilitation and their providers (Harmsen, 2008). Even before becoming a fully qualified CNS, the preceptor started her education and gathered much experience as a registered nurse where she worked in different settings including a hospital and even in different rehabilitation centers. Her passion to reform addicts led her to write her thesis based on rehabilitation centers and this required numerous research in that area including also dedicating time to work as a volunteer nurse in the centers where she was collecting data from (Fulton, Lyon and Goudreau, 2009). The years of experience combined with the educational expertise in rehabs has led her to become one of the top consultants and teacher in that field and that is why she is sought after by many rehabilitation organizations and the practitioners in the rehabilitation centers and even well-wishers wishing to invest in different forms of rehabilitation. Her caring nature contributed by her nursing career also has made her a consultant with a passion who follows up on her consultees to ensure that they understand issues and problems in rehabilitation (Hamric, Spross and Hanson,

The reasons that caused Lehman Brothers to collapse

The reasons that caused Lehman Brothers to collapse The bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers was a result of the investment banks exposure to the 2007-2010 financial crisis. In fact, the demise of the investment bank would come to symbolize the crisis. Therefore, in order to understand the Lehman Brothers bankruptcy, a consummate understanding of the 2007-2010 financial crisis is requisite. As such, an examination of crisis will serve as introductory. Several factors contributed to the fall of Lehman Brothers. Perhaps most important, however, was the period of deregulation that preceded the crisis. Arguably, the period of deregulation started during the Reagan Era. Reaganomics, the lassiez faireeconomic policies advocated by the former president, may have served as the starting point for the deregulatory climate that ensued for the following two decades. Either way, the following two decades witnessed an overriding belief in the virtues of deregulation. In 1999, President Clinton signed the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Financial Services Modernization Act into law. The act repealed portions of the Glass-Steagall Act (Banking Act of 1933). The Glass-Steagall Act prohibited universal banking. Universal banking is defined as a single institution acting as an investment bank, a commercial bank, and an insurance company(Investopedia). The repeal of Glass-Steagall allowed for harmful activity on the part of several financial intermediaries, including Lehman Brothers. For example, commercial banks played a crucial role as buyers and sellers of mortgage-backed securities, credit-default swaps and other explosive financial derivatives. Without the watering down and ultimate repeal of Glass-Steagall, the banks would have been barred from most of these activities (Demos 3). Several other factors contributed to the financial crisis, including:subprime lending, credit conditions, financial instruments, and an increase in home prices. Many subprime mortgages were predatory in nature. Often, the borrower had little chance of repayment. As mortgages were often bundled and sold, lenders were less concerned with a borrowers ability to repay the mortgage. In addition, over 80% of subprime mortgages were adjustable-rate mortgages (ARMs)(Lee).A combination of declining home prices and higher reset rates for ARMs caused delinquencies to increase dramatically. Subprime lending was fueled by low interest rates. After September 11, 2001, the Fed lowered rates. In periods of low interest rates, lending becomes more profitable. As such, banks were pressured to increase subprime lending. By 2006, subprime loans accounted for 20 percent of all mortgage loans (Kratz). The use of financial innovation to create complex financial instruments (derivatives) played a significant role in both subprime lending and the financial crisis. For example, banks sold mortgages, through the securitization process, to investors, in order to finance subprime lending. Asset-backed securities (ABSs) were a common securitization arrangement. A portfolio of income-producing assets (loans) is sold by the originating banks to a special purpose vehicle and the cash flows from the assets are then allocated to tranches (Hull 190). The securitized loan is then sold to investors as an ABS. The process is depicted below. ABS CDS In addition, another derivative, a credit default swap (CDS), was designed to provide insurance to protect against default. CDSs allowed investors to synthetically bet against the asset-backed securities. The process is akin to multiple people buying insurance on the same house (Demos). As such, when mortgages began to default, causing the value of ABSs to decline, the losses to insurance agencies were magnified. The combination of all three of the aforementioned factors caused a remarkable increase in home prices. Low interest rates encouraged borrowing. In addition, many subprime borrowers believed home prices would continue to appreciate in perpetuity. As such, subprime borrowers acquired ARMs. ARMs were a product of the financial innovation mentioned earlier. Between 1997 and 2006, the amalgamation of these factors resulted in a 124 percent increase in home prices (SP/Case-Shiller). Market Making In order to better understand the collapse of Lehman Brothers, it is necessary to examine the functions and practices of an investment bank. The sales and trading desks at investment banks had primarily acted as market makers. Market makers are a broker-dealer firms that  accept the risk of holding a  certain number of shares of a particular security in order to facilitate trading in that security (Investopedia). In other words, market makers provide liquidity to markets by quoting both bid and offer prices. In contrast,investment banks eventually began proprietary trading. Proprietary trading involves taking positions in assets, as opposed to profiting from the bid-offer spread (market making). Lehman Brothers, through proprietary trading, had large levered positions in both subprime mortgages and mortgage-backed securities. When the value of these assets began to decline, the firms equity was wiped out and the bank became insolvent. Proprietary Trading Collapse On September 15, 2008, Lehman Brothers filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy. This was the largest bankruptcy filing in U.S. history. The bank declared a debt of $613 billion, bond debt of $155 billion and $639 billion worth of assets. The demise of Lehman Brothers was caused by a combination of the rejection of bailout from the government, lack of a willing buyer, and the mortgage crisis. The reasons behind the government rejection of a Lehman Brothers bailout are hotly contested. Prior to Lehmans bankruptcy, the government had saved both American Insurance Group (AIG) and Bear Sterns from a similar fate. According to Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson and Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke, the government failed to bailout Lehman Brothers for two reasons. First, the government lacked legal authority to intervene. Second, Lehman had insufficient capital. The Federal Reserve could only make a loan, Bernanke explained, if collateral supported ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Giving Lehman a loan then would be lending into a run, Bernanke feltà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The assessment was that if there was a run, which there would be . . . all we would have accomplished would be to make counterparties whole and not succeed in preventing the collapse of the company (dailyfinance.com).Many theorize that the government didnt save Lehman Brothers in order to teach market participants a lesson. However , Bernanke refutes, I speak for myself, and I think I can speak for others, that at no time did we say, We could save Lehman, but we wont. Our concern was about the financial system, and we knew the implications for the greater financial system would be catastrophic, and it was (dailyfinance.com). Lehman Brothershad potential buyers in bothBank of America and Barclays Capital. However, without government assistance,both Bank of America and Barclays Capital walked. Lehman was forced into liquidation. September 16, 2008, the day following Lehman Brothers file for bankruptcy, Barclays signed a definitive agreement to acquire certain parts of Lehman as well as their New York headquarters building. The deal was revised days later for Barclays to acquire the core business of Lehman Brothers including their $960 million Midtown Manhattan office skyscraper and 10,000 employees for $1.35 billion. With few other options, Lehman had little choice but to acquiesce. On September 22, 2008, Nomura Holdings Inc. acquired Lehman Brothers franchise in the Asia Pacific region including multiple locations and 3,000 employees. The mortgage crisis played a significant role in the collapse of Lehman Brothers. Lehman was a major player in subprime lending. Lehman was a leader in both mortgage lending and loans securitization of mortgages. Subprime lending and securitization represented an increasing large portion of Lehmans revenues. As such, the firm was irrevocably linked to the mortgage market. When mortgage default rates began to rise, demand for MBSs decreased. Lehman was stuck with billions of dollars of toxic assets on its balance sheet. Lehman would eventually close its mortgage lending operations. The following year, due to holding on to large positions in subprime and other lower-rated mortgage tranches, Lehman faced significant losses. By 2007, Lehmans leverage ratio (measurement of risk) also increased tremendously to 31:1 putting them in a very vulnerable position because they were too thinly capitalized for the leverage used. This was allowed because they were not subject to the same regulations as depository banks. Deregulation allowed for Lehman to take those increasingly risky positions. Market Effects Lehman Brothers bankruptcy filing on September 15, 2008 caused the DJIA to drop over 500 points (-4.4%). September 15, 2008 marked the biggest one day drop since the markets reopened following September 11, 2001. The DJIA would eventually lose an additional 43% of its value, erasing more than US$ 1 T in market capitalization. World stock market indices suffered a similar fate. The FTSE All-World Index would eventually lose 2400 points (44% of its value). The prospect of Lehman liquidating $4.3 billion in mortgage securities sparked a selloff in the commercial mortgage-backed security (MBS) market. Several money and institutional funds had significant exposure to Lehman. BNY Mellons institutional cash fund and the primary reserve fund (an MMMF) both fell below $1 per share due to exposure to Lehman. The Net Asset Value (NAV) of MMMFs normally stays constant at $1 because investment products usually do not produce capital gains or losses (Investopedia). This event was referred to as the breaking of the buck. Overall systematic risk increased drastically as a result of the bankruptcy filing. Due to the increase in systemic risk, there was a US$ 737 B decline in collateral outstanding in the securities lending market. In addition, the TED Spread, the spread between U.S. treasury rates and LIBOR rates, increased almost 400 basis points. Essentially, the dramatic increase in the TED spread was due to overwhelming uncertainty. LIBOR rates incorporate a small amount of credit risk; U.S. Treasury rates are seen as virtually risk-free. The uncertainty caused the rate differential between a small amount of credit risk and risk-free to widen. After the Lehman Brothers bankruptcy filing, in order to address the escalating crisis, the government created the Troubles Assets Relief Program (TARP). TARP was designed to purchase both assets and equity from financial intermediaries (FIs). The purpose of its design was threefold. First, by purchasing assets, the government hoped to remove toxic assets from the banks balance sheets. Second, by increasing equity positions, TARP recapitalized the troubled banks. Third, TARP was also implemented to encourage inter-bank lending. Opinion The bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers was preventable. The preventability of the Lehman Brothers bankruptcy is primarily due to three factors. First, corporate culture is dictated by upper-level management (this is especially true in top-down hierarchical organizations). At Lehman Brothers, CEO Richard Fuld created a culture of risk taking. A corporate culture that reflected conservatism could have prevented the banks demise. Second, as a corollary, tougher risk management policies could have prevented risk taking behavior. For example, by historical measures, Lehman had a tremendous used a tremendous amount of leverage. As mentioned, a 3 percent decline in asset prices would wipe out the firms equity. A leverage cap could have been used to prevent the overuse of leverage. Third, the weak economic climate was disastrous for Lehman. Lehman had large positions in the mortgage market. When the market began to decline, those positions went against the investment bank. To prevent the three factors, the firm should have hired a CEO that advocated a less risky business strategy. In addition, reduce employees compensation based on profit generation. The firm could have also employed a more market neutral trading strategy. In doing so, Lehman would have avoided insolvency. As mentioned, several ways exist to prevent the failure of the investment bank. However,all the above approaches Lehman CEO Richard Fuld are tailored to Lehman Brothers unique situation. They may or may not, however, be industry-wide or socially beneficial.To prevent another financial crisis and, therefore, the failure of financial institutions, we must align the self-interests of those institutions with societal interests. The following are recommendations for aligning the above interests: à ¢- Long-term Incentive Structure à ¢- Fiduciary Responsibility à ¢- Promote Financial Education à ¢- Prevent the Manipulation of Social Interests We need to develop a long-term incentive structure to prevent executives trying to capture profit upfront at expense of the company and/or societys long-term interests. We could design a longer-term incentive structure that employees will be compensated for their performance over longer periods of times other than the currently yearly compensation. Also we could design compensation program make the compensations based on certain activities callable in the future, if the loss of the company is deemed directly related to the those activities that the compensations are based on. Fiduciary responsibility should be mandatory and financial institutions should be held legally accountable. We need to require full disclosure of conflict of interest, not only in the event that two parties have a direct interest conflict, but also full disclosure when companies providing a financial service have different opinions than the clients current position. In addition, we should expand the concept of full disclosure. We propose making academic researchers disclose the benefit they are getting from financial institutions, including board positions and monetary compensation. Promote education of the general public. Specifically, implement finance classes in public high schools, ensuring all students are aware of market basics. In addition, make firms provide optional education on specific products to clients. Lastly, we must reduce or eliminate attempts to make social interests subservient to self-interests. This concept could apply to all industries. We could limit the funding of lobbyists a firm could hire, and highly restrict the political donations from large firms.We must also eliminate the links between government regulators and market participants, eliminating the conflict of interest between corporations and society. In general, the aforementioned actions are attempts to align self-interest with the social interest. Self-interest, the invisible hand in the successful free market system, must be made to serve the interest of the society. Conclusion This report has examined the following: the Lehman Brothers bankruptcy, the bankruptcys causes, the culpable parties, market effects of the bankruptcy, and risk management errors relating to the bankruptcy. In addition, the opinion section of the paper answers the question, Was the bankruptcy preventable? In summary, on September 15, 2008, the Lehman Brothers filed for bankruptcy. It was the largest bankruptcy filing in U.S. history. Several causes forced Lehman into bankruptcy. Of primary importance, however, was the investment banks exposure to the subprime mortgage market. Deregulation and risk management errors allowed Lehman to increase that exposure. Lehmans CEO Richard Fuld, Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson, and Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke are each culpable. Mr. Fuld is responsible because he created a culture of risk taking and pay based on short-term performance. Henry Paulson and Mr. Bernanke could have saved the bank and chose to do otherwise. We believe this event was entirely preventable. As mentioned, the banks exposure to the subprime mortgage market was, ultimately, its downfall. If more stringent risk management policies had been in place and Lehmans corporate culture had been more conservative, the banks exposure to the crisis would have been reduced. Reduced exposure would have undoubtedly increased Lehmans chances for survival. A singular theme continuously appeared while we conducted our research and, consequently, appeared throughout this report. That theme is greed. Greed is defined as excessive or rapacious desire, especially for wealth or possessions. Unquestionably, human greed contributed to the 2007-2010 financial crisis. Both financial intermediaries and individuals erred. For example, AIG reported record profits in 2007. Unfortunately, the insurer earned those profits by taking on enormous amounts of Off-Balance-Sheet risk. These OBS liabilities (contingent liabilities) resulted in an $85 B government bailout of the firm. Individuals speculated on home prices by refinancing mortgages. Often times, these loans were secured by home equity. When home prices declined, the mortgages went underwater.Mortgage defaults soared. In both cases, greed blinded the market participants. Lehman Brothers wasnt impervious to the rapacious desire either. Leverage is the use of either borrowed money and/or derivatives to multiply gains and losses. The multiplication of gains and losses (greater volatility) implies an increase in risk. Recklessly increasing risk demonstrates an excessive desire for wealth.Therefore, leverage metrics (ratios) can be used tomeasure greed. Prior to the crisis, Lehmans leverage ratios soared. Viewing a single financial product, event, action, or asset bubble as the sole cause of the crisis is overly simplistic. Greed served as a catalyst for each. By ignoring this fact, we are doomed to repeat our mistakes.

John Marshalls Court :: essays research papers

By the early 1800s, the debate over Federal power which had been so tactfully postponed when it surfaced in previous efforts at unification (i.e., the Constitutional Convention) had again inevitably reared its head once the government was established and the neutral greatness of Washington's reign had ended. As the major issue of the day, the controversy of States' rights versus big government permeated politics in a profound depth and completeness: it was reflected in the core beliefs and platforms of the major political parties of the day, and most issues were at unobtrusive levels reflections of this central conflict. Prominent politicians of the day, such as John Marshall and Thomas Jefferson, were also outstanding thinkers with very strong opinions on this issue. Several Acts of Congress proved the Legislature to be an effective battleground for the issue of federal power. In the end of the 18c, the Federalist Party enjoyed great political influence. Presidents and many congressmen represented the party's goals and served as opponents to those who sang too loudly the praises of "States' rights". Thus, Congress succeeded in passing legislature that seriously challenged individual rights. The Alien Act made assimilation and naturalization more difficult for immigrants, and the Sedition Act posed a substantial threat to First Amendment rights, as it specified punishment for "writing, printing, uttering, or publishing any false, scandalous, or malicious writings" about virtually any branch or aspect of the U.S. government. Such a clear subordination of individual rights to Federal power evoked a strong Republican backlash, in both State Assemblies and ballot boxes. The Kentucky Resolutions were passed in State legislature atta cking the Sedition Act, stating that "whensoever the general government assumes undelegated powers, its acts are unauthorized, void, and of no force†¦" (D) Two years later, Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson was elected President and Congressional elections followed similar trends, ending the long-time Federalist dominance. A second issue touched upon by the Kentucky resolutions was that of judicial review. The Resolutions asserted that "the government created by this compact" (i.e., the Constitution) "was not made the exclusive or final judge of the extent of the powers delegated to itself†¦" (D) This attacked the power of the Supreme Court to decide the constitutional validity of law and thus posed a threat to an important check on Legislative power. This document would not, however, dictate the future role of the Supreme Court; that precedent was instead set by Chief Justice John Marshall, in practice as well as in his 1803 Marbury v.

Research Proposal- Are Victims of Childhood Sexual Abuse Essay

Childhood sexual abuse is a subject that is not researched very deeply. One issue is traumatizing the victims even more by studying them on a long-term base. There are questions that researchers want to answer but designing the right study to achieve the answers is sensitive work. One such question is â€Å"Are victims of childhood sexual abuse more likely to engage in sexual activity at earlier ages than non-abused†? Research is lacking in the area of childhood sexuality and without this research psychologists are unable to adequately study the negative effects of sexual abuse of children. I will conduct a developmental study using the sequential design in order to answer the question: Are victims of childhood sexual abuse more likely to engage in sexual activity at earlier ages than non-abused? I am conducting this study to gain a greater understanding of how violation of trust and body may or may not cause a child to engage in sexual activity at an earlier age than non-abused children. The available literature on childhood sexual abuse is insufficient on many levels and lack adequate methodologies for approaching treatment or study of victims of childhood sexual abuse. Research Proposal: Are Victims of Childhood Sexual Abuse More Likely to Engage in Sexual Activity at Earlier Ages than Non-Abused Introduction Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) is a subject that is not researched very deeply. One issue is traumatizing the victims even more by studying them on a long-term base. There are questions that researchers want to answer but designing the right study to achieve the answers is sensitive work. One such question is â€Å"Are victims of childhood sexual abuse more likely to engage in sexual activity at earlier ages than non-abused†? Research is lacking in the area of childhood sexuality and without this research psychologists are unable to adequately study the negative effects of sexual abuse of children. When someone you trust or even someone you do not know takes something from you is devastating to say the least. When that something is an experience you do not understand and have not experienced under normal circumstances the devastation is unimaginable. When an adult or older person violates a child in a sexual manner it introduces feelings that the child is not ready to have, and it causes confusion in the child; this is known as traumatic sexualization. Traumatic sexualization refers to an evolvement in which a child’s sexuality is formed in a developmentally improper and interpersonally dysfunctional ways. Human sexuality develops in stages and if forced to experience a stage before the body is ready it will hinder the body’s ability to cope. Sex and sexually explicit behaviors are not intended in childhood. Humans do not enter puberty until adolescence and still are not sure how to cope with the feeling, but if molested or raped before ever experiencing any of the feelings naturally the children may never be able to know what they truly feel in regard to sex. Every survivor copes with sexual abuse in different ways. Some may become promiscuous, exhibit sexualized behaviors, and some become abuser themselves. This study’s focus is promiscuity. CSA has a variety of definitions including but not limited to: attempted intercourse, oral genital contact, fondling of genitals directly or through clothing, and exhibitionism or exposing children to adult sexual activity or pornography. For the purpose of this research the following is the definition; CSA is the involvement of a child in sexual activity above the child’s cognitive developmental understanding and above the child’s developmental maturity. As a coping mechanism some sexual abuse survivors may become sexually active with multiple partners. Promiscuity is not a coping mechanism that any therapist would recommend to a survivor, but it is one path some survivors take. Research has shown a correlation between the severity of the abuse and the number of partners a survivor will have. A number of factors determine the severity of the abuse encompassing the relationship between victim and perpetrator, whether or not there is physical force or threats, whether penetration takes place, and the number of occurrences. My step-grandfather raped me at the age of nine. He told me that if I struggled or refused he would just go to my three-year-old sister because she would not be able to refuse. I would cringe when his bath water started to run because I knew what was coming. He would force me to perform oral sex on him until he climaxed and I had to swallow it he would then penetrate me. I spit it at him once, but by the time that night was over I knew to never do that again. He was extremely violent when penetrating me that night. I could not wear shorts for a week because the bruises would show. Anytime we were alone he would touch me and make me touch him. As the summer continued his boldness progress to the point that he would fondle me under a blanket on the couch while, watching movies with my grandmother and little sister. As I grew he would try to be alone with me but I knew what he wanted, and would not be alone with him. Over the years he did molest me a handful of times but that summer was the only time there was penetration. I tried blocking the summer out but that only made it worse for me so I decided to make sex meaningless because up to the time he ripped it from me I thought it was special and only for marriage. I cannot say that had this not happened I would not have become sexually active but I truly believed in waiting. A year after having the option ripped from me and trying to hide the pain I broke down and started having sex with friends interested in sex. By the time I was 16 the number of partners I had been with was 6. I always wondered if I used another coping mechanism would I still have such a high number. I have been with my husband for 20 years and have just begun to truly feel the intimate connection I should have felt from the beginning. I am conducting this study to gain a greater understanding of how violation of trust and body may or may not cause a child to engage in sexual activity at an earlier age than non-abused children. The available literature on childhood sexual abuse is insufficient on many levels and lack adequate methodologies for approaching treatment or study of victims of childhood sexual abuse. Review of the Literature Over the past years CSA has received much public attention however, majority of research has focused on the victims as children; comparatively little work has been published on the long term consequences. CSA researchers are faced with a number of challenges. The definition of CSA is a reason to why there is lack of research. As there is no universal definition researcher’s definitions can differ, and as a result depending on the definition used in the study findings can vary. The lack of research in the effects of CSA is also due to the difficulties in establishing casual connections between the abuse and the later affects years after the abuse. Effects found in survivors are not always exclusive to the childhood sexual abuse and may reflect other underlying issues. Conducting studies in sensitive areas such as CSA has proven to be difficult; therefore research in such fields may be limited. A study conducted on the ethical issues in research on sensitive topics noted that, participants who had experienced child abuse were more likely to report distress after participating in research, due to remembering the past. However, researchers also found that these participants were more likely to report that participation was helpful. Another difficulty in assessing the effects of childhood sexual abuse is that through the repression of the trauma, or dissociation, survivors of such abuse may possibly not consciously remember the abuse experience. Therefore findings gathered from research could be effected, interfering with the validly and reliability of the study. Research has documented that CSA survivors are more prone to suffer from social, emotional and behavioral problems than non survivors; difficulties include, however are not limited to, anxiety, depression, guilt, difficulty with interpersonal relationships, self-destructive behaviors, lowered self-esteem, and promiscuity. According to research evidence, early sexual experiences often have an influence on later sexual behavior. When initial sexual experience is abusive, it could elicit explicit effects on ensuing sexual behaviors. Research has found that survivors of CSA engage in risky sexual behavior at higher rates than individuals who have not experienced such abuse. A number of studies furthered Costas and Landreth’s findings and reported that risky sexual behavior in adults previously abused was exhibited in many forms; having many sexual partners, failing to use condoms during intercourse increasing the risk of sexually transmitted infections and having anal sex. Meston and Lorenz provided an explanation as to why some adults with a history of CSA may participate in risky sexual behavior. Sexual abuse could result in the abused to disregard their own humanity therefore, perform sexual acts in a more promiscuous way. A survivor’s childhood experience could cause him or her to be incapable of separating sex from affection, which then leads to promiscuity or impaired arousal. Sexual promiscuity was a way for me to take control of my feelings and be able to keep the abuse from totally consuming me. Method Population, Procedure, Instruments, and Data Analysis I will conduct a developmental study using the sequential design in order to answer the question: Are victims of childhood sexual abuse more likely to engage in sexual activity at earlier ages than non-abused? The study would need to have 50 participants (25 male, 25 female) in the 10-15 age group during the first phase. The same 50 would come back in 10 years, and one last time in another 10 years. During each phase the participants will fill out the same questionnaire and the collected data will be analyzed. After the final phase each participant’s results will be reviewed for changes. The collected data will be compared among the varying age groups as well as for individual changes each decade. Discussion I am conducting this study to gain a greater understanding of how violation of trust and body may or may not cause a child to engage in sexual activity at an earlier age than non-abused children. The available literature on childhood sexual abuse is insufficient on many levels and lack adequate methodologies for approaching treatment or study of victims of childhood sexual abuse. The data collected will hopefully answer this question and proved helpful information on how to cope with this specific effect of CSA. As a survivor of CSA, I know promiscuity was my coping strategy, but wish that I had chosen a safer strategy. With more knowledge and a better understanding of how to help CSA survivors; therapists may save future survivors from engaging in promiscuous behavior. References: Allan, J. A., & Lawton-Speert, S. (1993). Play Psychotherapy of a Profoundly Incet Abused Boy: A Jungian Approach. International Journal of Play Therapy, 2(1), 33-48. Retrieved September 2013 Alpert, J. L., Brown, L. S., & Courtois, C. A. (1998). Symptomatic Clients and Memories of Childhood Abuse: What the Trauma and Child Sexual Abuse Literature Tells Us. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 4(4), 941-995. Retrieved September 2013 Cohen, J. N. (2008). Using Feminist, Emotion-Focused, and Developmental Approaches to Enhance Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Related to Childhood Sexual Abuse. Psycholotherapy Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 45(2), 227-246. doi:10.1037/0033-3204.45.2.227 Costas, M., & Landreth, G. (1999). Filial Therapy with Non-Offending Parents of Children Who Have Been Sexually Abused. International Journal pf Play Therapy, 8(1), 43-66. Retrieved September 2013 Finkelhor, D. (1990). Early and Long-Term Effects of Child Sexual Abuse: An Update. Proessional Psychology: Research and Practice, 21(5), 325-330. Hopton, J. L., & Huta, V. (2013). Evaluation of an Intervention Designed for Men Who Were Abussed in Childhood and are Experiencing Symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(3), 300-313. doi:10.1037/aoo29705 Kendall-Tackett, K. A., Williams, L. M., & Finkelhor, D. (1993). Impact of sexual abuse on children: A review and synthesis of recent empirical studies. Psychological Bulletin, 113(1), pp. 164-180. Merrill, L. L., Guimond, J. M., Thomsen, C. J., & Milner, J. S. (2003). Child Sexual Abuse and Number of Sexual Patrners in Young Women: The Role of Abuse Severity, Coping Style, and Sexual Functioning. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(6), 987-996. Meston, C. M., & Lorenz, T. A. (2013). Physiological Stress Responses Predict Sexual Functioning and Satisfaction Differently in Women Who Have and Have Not Been Sexually Abused in Childhood. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 5(4), 350-358. doi:10.1037/a0027706 Shapiro, J. P. (1991). Interviewing Children About Psychological Issues Associated with Sexual Abuse. Psychotherapy, 28(1), 55-66. Retrieved September 2013 Talbot, N. L. (1997). Women Sexually Abused as Children: The Centrality of Shame Issues and Treatment Implications. Psychotherapy, 23(1), 11-18. Retrieved September 2013 Tharinger, D. (1990). Impact of child sexual abuse on developing sexuality. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 21(5), pp. 331-337. Van de Putte, S. J. (1995). A paradigm for working with child survivors of sexual abuse who exhibit sexualized behaviors during play therapy. International Journal of Play Therapy, 4(1), 27-49. Wolf, E. K., & Alpert, J. L. (1991). Psychoanalysis and Child Sexual Abuse: A review of the Post-Freudian Literature. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 8(3), 305-327. Retrieved September 2013

Explore the extent to which personality traits explain student preferences for specific learning approaches and teaching modalities

Review of the Literature 1.1 IntroductionTo learn more about education and to be able to improve the system to best provide for the individual needs of its learners, this study aims to investigate the link between an individual’s personality and their preferred learning style and teaching modality. There is a shortage of current research on how a student’s personality influences their learning style and preferred teaching modality. There is however, a large body of research that analyses the relationship between personality and learning. Curry (1983) describes learning as a future focused process that involves adaptation of constructs to bring about a change in an individual’s cognitive, practical, affective, social or moral skills which can be observable as a change in behaviour. The learning approach of an individual reflects the way in which they go about the process of learning with regard to their chosen setting, their internal goals, treatment of information, and desire to succeed. Understanding the motives for these individual differences in ways of learning and how this may apply to disparities in achievement has always been a concern for those studying educational practice. Teaching modalities refer to the way in which information is delivered to the student, and the learning environment that is created by the teacher. Higher Education employs several teaching modalities, including traditional lectures, small tutorial groups and one-to-one mentoring. Teaching modalities can vary as a product of the subject being taught, assessment criteria, and the individual preferences of lecturers, who may emphasise more theoretical or more practical approaches, or a combination of the two (Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham & Lewis, 2007; Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnam, Dissout & Heaven, 2005). Despite this large scope for variability, there is little research into students’ preferences for different teaching modalities, especially into what factors contribute to these preferences. Fielder (1993) suggested that for the most effective teaching, a variety of approaches to teaching should be recruited in order to appeal to the different learning styles and personalities of the students. This hypothesis is supported by a study showing that a variety of teaching modalities was beneficial in engaging more individual learning styles (Dunn & Dunn, 1979). Whilst there has been debate surrounding whether there is a scientific basis for learning styles (Curry, 1983; Pashler et al., 2009), this evidence appears to highlight their relevance to teaching. The large variation in teaching style, learning approach and academic performance poses several questions. Does student personality and their preferred learning approach account for preference of certain teaching modalitiesWhat is the relationship between personality and an individual’s learning approachIt is therefore important to ask, are certain learning approaches suited to specific teaching modalities? The following hypotheses will be tested to investigate the relationship between student personality, preferred learning approach and preferred teaching modality (a) There is a significant relationship between certain personality characteristics and learning approaches. OR Is there a relationship between student personality traits and preferred learning approach? (b) There is a significant relationship between student personality traits and their preferred teaching modality. OR Is there a relationship between student personality traits and their preferred teaching modality? (c) There is a significant relationship between students’ preferred learning approaches and their preferences for teaching modalities OR Is there a relationship between students’ preferred learning approaches and their preferred teaching modality?1.2 Learning ApproachesRecent research has emphasised the important contribution of students’ learning approaches as determinants of how much knowledge they acquire, and how this translates into academic performance (Duff, 2003; Duff, Boyle, & Dunleavy, 2004). In a series of investigations, Biggs (1987, 1992) conceptualised three major learning approaches to classify the way students approach their learning. These were classified as ‘deep’ surface’ and ‘achieving’. A deep approach to learning is characterised by intrinsic motivation, engagement with subject matter, and the desire to learn more detail and thoroughly understand the subject. Deep learners will aim to make the content of a le sson meaningful and develop a thorough understanding. Conversely, students who adopt a surface approach to learning show less interest in the task, avoid any challenging activities, and aim to pass exams rather than enhance their understanding. These students tend to receive information superficially and memorise isolated and unrelated facts (Biggs & Tang, 2007). The achieving approach to learning is characterised by goal-oriented study strategies; based on competition between other students and ego enhancement. This approach lends to students that are motivated by the desire to achieve the top grades regardless of whether they find interest in the task at hand (Biggs, 1987; 1988). Biggs (1987) further divided each of the ‘deep’, ‘surface’ and ‘achieving’ approaches into ‘motive ‘ and ‘strategy’ as student goals may differ from the ways that these students go about achieving them. Previous research shows support for a direct relationship between student personality characteristics and student’s learning approaches (Zhang, 2003; Disth, 2003;). Zhang (2003) indicated that there are positive relationships between extraversion and surface learning, and between agreeableness and surface learning. This finding is supported in a study by Duff et al. (2004), who demonstrated a positive relationship between extraversion and a deep learning approach. Additionally, individuals with conscientious and open personalities have been shown desire to develop deep learning strategies (Zhang, 2003) and those showing strong openness to experience have shown less propensity to being surface learners. Literature has examined several models of learning styles and proposed criticisms of such tools that purport to measure learning styles. One such tool is the Kolb Experiential Learning Model (ELM) (Kolb, 1976). Kolb’s ELM has received criticism that it is neither valid nor reliable, which has detrimental implications for education that could be if employed (Bergsteiner, Avery & Neumann, 2010; Geiger, Boyle & Pinto, 1993). However, an alternative model, the Learning Styles Questionnaire (LSQ) (Honey & Mumford, 1992) has shown good test-retest reliability. Critics have suggested limitations to the LSQ, suggesting that the tool is useful for those students already interested in a particular career choice and would not be reliable enough for students attending non-vocational courses (Reynolds, 1997). Although there has been a debate as to the scientific basis of learning styles (Curry, 1983, Pashler et al., 2009), studies in the literature have provided irrefutable evidence that learning approaches and personality traits are strongly related. It may also be possible to infer that learning approaches have a distinctive value in explaining human behaviour, as learning is such a pervasive feature of being. This is supported by research from Busato, Prins, Elshout and Hamaker (2000), who assert that a learning styles inventory has a diagnostic value for identifying both strengths and weaknesses in the individual study behaviour of students. The present study will explore the extent to which personality and learning styles influence preferred teaching modalities.1.3 Personality The discovery of the â€Å"big five personality traits† can be interpreted as one of the major accomplishments of psychology in the twentieth century. These traits are agreeableness, conscientiousness, culture, emotional stability (versus neuroticism) and extraversion (Goldberg, 1990). Tokar (1995) proposed that the five-factor model is the one of the most â€Å"prominent and heuristic models of personality structure†. Several studies support Tokar’s view finding that the personality traits of the big five model accounts for a large amount of the variability in personality (Goldberg, 1993; Taylor & McDonald, 1999). McCrae and Costa (1995a) acknowledge that personality has many other dimensions, proposing their ‘Model of Person,’ which uses the term ‘characteristic adaptation’ to explain personality traits that are not fundamental characteristics described by the big factor five. These characteristics adaptations are proposed to develop over time and are influenced by environment and experience, yet mediated by personality traits. These include characteristics such as habits and attitudes. The learning approach construct may well be one of such characteristic adaptation. This has been emphasised by a large research base into personality and how it is influences by a variety of variables. These include intellectual satisfaction, student self-esteem, teachers’ perceptions of their control over their students, teaching effectiveness and course type (Lieberman, Stroup-Bernham, & Peel, 1998; McCaffrey, 1996; Parker, 1997; Rimmer, 1997). Additionally the role and influence of thinking styles has been addressed (Zhang & Huang, 2001; Zhang, 2000a; Zhang 2000b). This emphasises the many possible influences that may be at work on the development of one’s learning approach. The work of Costa & McCrae (1985-1992) has been successful in accommodating the big five personality constructs already assessed by Biggs (1987) and Eysenck (1975). They investigated the NEO Five-Factor Inventory and found that it was able to reliably assess the five personality dimensions. Other research into this inventory showed that it provided both good internal validity (Holden; 1994; Furnham 1996) and external validity using Holland’s (1994) Self Directed Search (Tokar & Swanson, 1995; Fuller, Holland & Johnson, 1999). This is all suggestive that these five predominant characteristics are reliable, replicable and representative of distinct traits. Neuroticism (N) at the extreme end of the scale may be characterised by anxiety nervousness and emotional lability. Individuals high on the N scale tend to have a pessimistic outlook and experience negative feelings that include emotional instability, guilt, embarrassment, and low self-esteem. The extraversion (E) subscale tends to be associated with the sociable and assertive individuals who prefer to work in a team with other people. Openness to Experience (O) is characterised by preference for variety, openness to change and variety, active imagination and independence of judgement. Additionally, people who score high on the O scale tend to be less conservative and traditional, however they also value and respect other people’s beliefs and conventions. Individuals scoring high on the culture (C) scale are characterised as being strong-willed, responsive and trustworthy with a strong sense of purpose. They also tend to be focused on task and goal outcome and are achievement oriented (Goldberg, 1990). Murray-Harvey (1994) observed that some descriptions of learning approaches are best formulated in terms of individual personality. For example, Shabolt (1978) demonstrated that those showing introverted or neurotic personality traits performed in conditions of structured teaching than when exposed to unstructured teaching methods. Eysenck (1978) also noted that personality and learning are closely linked, finding that extroverts tend to socialise during learning periods, are easily distracted from academic work and find concentration more difficult. Eysenck (1978) also postulated that those showing the neuroticism trait tend to let nerves interfere with their work. Furnham (1992) expanded this work, using the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975; 1991) and the Learning Styles Questionnaire (Honey & Mumford, 1992). Findings revealed that all elements of learning style were related to at least one of the elements of the personality traits, suggesting an ine xtricable link between the two. Furthering this hypothesis, Jackson and Lawtey-Jones (1996) found evidence for a reversal of the relationship, finding that whilst learning styles could be fully explained by personality scales, additionally, all learning styles correlated significantly with at least one personality trait. Furnham (1992) however, suggested that an individual’s learning approach may be interpreted as a derivative of personality rather than a separate entity. Findings from Zhang (2003) strongly suggest reason for further research into the field of personality and learning, finding that the two are related, but are individual constructs (reporting a quarter overlap), whereas Duff et. al. (2004) report an even greater relationship between learning approaches and personality traits. Duff (2004) and Zhang (2003) reported similar associations between openness and a deep approach to learning and neuroticism and surface approach. Extroverts were proposed to adopt a surface approach (Zhang, 2003), however Duff et al. (2004) found that agreeableness purported a surface approach. Furthering this, one may deduce that learning approaches act as indirect influences of personality traits on learning success. This may be highlighted by some personality traits being more strongly related to some learning approaches than others. These mediating factors may be identified through the consideration of how an individual may adapt their behaviour to suit their personality. For example, the surface approach, which accounts for a potential of failure and comparison with others, is related to neuroticism, and openness, which is associated with curiosity, imagination, and intellectual values, is related to the deep approach. Again, the personality trait of conscientiousness is reflected in the thorough nature of the deep approach. Other research highlights that it is a variety of personality traits that are associated with each learning approach and that there is not a single distinct contributing trait per approach (Diseth, 2003). There are arguments to suggest a dubious link between personality traits and learning approaches, with belief that it cannot be modelled (Zhang & Sternberg, 2006) due to the dubious nature of learning approaches. Despite this resistance, others authors have found evidence and argument that the learning approach concept is associated strongly with personality (Furnham, 1992; Gelade 2002; Jackson and Lawty-Jones, 1996). Messick (1994) proposed that learning approaches, when in conjunction with other influence and constructs can be seen to provide a metaphorical bridge between cognition and personality. This implies that learning approaches can act as mediators in bringing learning material to the individual and making it relevant. The connection between personality and learning approach has been under investigation for many years (Jung 1921; Myers & Briggs, 1962), which highlights the importance that has been placed on the understanding of this construct. Information on the relationship between personality and learning approaches allows for insight into the motivations and strategies that may be used by individuals when learning from a very young age. This will be especially useful for those personality traits that show persist throughout life, and will enable tailoring of education and learning advice appropriately. Additionally, it is important to know if personality and learning approaches are distinct psychological constructs and if so whether these can account for students’ teaching preferences. This is important as teaching methods are a strong influence on students’ learning and, in turn, their academic performance.Teaching ModalitiesFischer & Fischer (1979) define teaching style as a â€Å"pervasive way of approaching learners that might be consistent with several methods of teaching†. Conversely, Conti (1989) argued that teaching style is less pervasive, suggesting that it a construct of the personal char acteristics and qualities of the teacher and remains consistent in various situations. Knowles (1970) emphasised the importance of teaching style on the learning experience, asserting that â€Å"the behaviour of the teacher influences the character of the learning climate more than any other single factor†. Teaching itself has been suggested to consist of an instructor’s personal behaviour and the media used to transmit or retrieve data to or from the learner (Gregorc, 1982). The success of teaching style and the accomplishment this data transmission and retrieval may depend largely on matching. Matching is defined in terms of a compatibility of the environment and the interactive effects of the person (Hunt 1979). Early studies carried in the US such as that by Simon (1987) aimed to determine the relationship between students’ preferred learning approaches and their preferred teaching styles of college tutors. He administered the Cranfield Learning styles inventory to 4,000 students. His studies revealed that students indicated a preference for fewer lectures and a more hands on experience. Students showed preference for less faculty directed learning and more student independence, also preferring peer and instructor affiliation. Implications from this study were that instructors should decrease the number of lectures in favour for an increase direct experience where students become more involved in the course and programme direction. One of the strongest measures of learning success is academic achievement (Zimmerman, 1990), therefore the success of learning approaches and teaching modalities may be assessed through individual performance. Personality type has been shown to be a predictor of academic performance, with those with conscientious personality types achieving academic success across a range of subjects (Busato et al. 2000). Additionally, Lieberman, Stroup-Benham and Peel (1998) found that conscientiousness, agreeableness and extraversion correlated with intellectual satisfaction at medical school. When considering this relationship, it is important to consider the influences that personality type has on learning approach and how much this may contribute to the outcome of academic success. There have been many further studies relating to personality and academic achievement, which as discussed above is likely mediated through learning style, however there is an absence of research investigating the infl uence of teaching modalities. Current studies pertaining to academic achievement, learning approaches and teaching modalities found that students whose preferred learning approaches matched with their teacher’s preferred teaching modality received higher grades than those whose did not match (Mathews 1995; Rains, 1978; Hunter 1979). This highlights the importance of matching and concordance between student and teacher. This is supported by research suggesting that teaching modalities and students’ learning approaches interact to affect student learning (Saracho, 1990; Saracho & Spodek, 1994; Taylor, 1994; Wentura, 1985). The current research base would be greatly improved by further investigation into the relationship between learning approaches and students’ preferred teaching styles, especially how these are both mediated by the individual student’s personality. Recent research carried out by Furnham (1996) begins to explore this avenue. 221 students took the Neo Five-Factor Personality Inventory, were assessed on their learning approaches and also their preferred teaching modalities. Personality trait correlated with learning approach, and both of these individually had an effect on preference for certain teaching modalities. 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